1 Flowers haplostemonous; petals with one principal vein, membranaceous; ovary with one pendent ovule; seed without dark testa.

2 Flowers in racemes with coflorescences; sepals caducous; bract and bracteoles remain attached to fruit upon maturity (N. Mexico - SW USA).

2* Flowers in cymoids or thyrsoids, sepals persistent, fruit free of bract.

3 Gronovioideae

3 Erect subshrub with narrow, sinuate-lobate leaves; sepals and petals linear; connective protracted into long appendage (N. Mexico – SW USA).

Cevallia sinuata

3* Liana or climber with cordate to subpalmately lobed leaves; sepals spatulate; petals lanceolate; connective not differentiated.

4 Leaves cordate, margin entire; inflorescence branches dichasial; petals laciniate (Hispaniola).

4* Leaves subpalmately lobed; inflorescence branches monochasial; petals entire (Peru - Mexico).

 1* Flowers polyandric or obdiplostemonous; petals with 3-5 principal veins; ovary with one to many ovules on parietal placentae; seeds with dark testa.

5 Petals +/- flat and membranaceous; staminodia not in antesepalous groups if present.

6 Flowers obdiplostemonous (S. Mexico).

6* Flowers polyandric.

7 Seeds tuberculate (both Americas).

7* Seeds striate (Guatemala - USA).

5* Petals deeply cymbiform or carnose if flat; staminodia in antesepalous groups always present.

8 Flowers tetramerous; inner staminodia with a differentiated, lobed apex; petals usually with longitudinal lamellae; urticant hairs always absent.

9 Outer 4-6 staminodia united to form a flat, yellow floral scale; erect shrub from underground xylopodium (N.Peru).

9* All staminodia free nearly to base; erect annual or perennial herbs or shrubs without differentiated underground structures.

10 Erect shrub (Polynesia).

10* Erect annual or basally decumbent, perennial herbs (S. & C. America, islands).

8* Flowers penta- to octamerous; inner staminodia undifferentiated or variously thickened and appendaged but never with a lobed apex; petals without longitudinal lamellae; urticant hairs often present.

11 Flowers erect; floral scales pale yellow, white or cream coloured, +/- flat, dorsal threads filiform if present; petals white, greenish or cream coloured.

12 Floral scales from more than 3 staminodia, 4-5 free staminodia; plant without urticant setae (N. Chile).

12* Floral scales from three staminodia, 2 free staminodia, plant with or without urticant setae.

13 Sepals much larger than petals; floral scales > 5x as long as wide; desert shrub without urticant setae (Africa, Arabia).

13 * Sepals smaller than petals, floral scales +/- as long as wide or up to 2x as long as wide; plants with urticant setae (S. & C. America).

14 Erect desert shrubs; leaves less than 4 cm long; petals spreading; floral scales with dorsal threads much exceeding the scale neck in length (Peru).

14* Tall rain forest herb (to 4m); leaves more than 15 cm long; petals semi-erect, floral scales without threads but with lobed apex (N. Colombia to Costa Rica).

11* Flowers usually pendent, very rarely erect; floral scales brightly coloured, usually red and yellow or green, and / or with various morphological elaborations such as dorsal calli, wings, flags or a double arch.

15 Inflorescence ebracteate; seed testa with asymmetrical cells (Brazil, Hispaniola).

15* Inflorescence bracteose or frondose; seeds deeply pitted, irregularly fibrous, reticulate or rugulate, symmetrical (Andean and southern South America, 1 sp in Brazil).

16 Every flower on the branches of the inflorescence subtended by one bract only (primary flower usually with two bracts); floral scales with conspicuous dorsal sacs and apical wings, often with dorsal callus.

16* Every flower of the inflorescence subtended by two bracts; floral scales rectangular or with double arch and / or dorsal threads or flags but never with conspicuous dorsal sacs or apical wings or dorsal calli.

17 Fruits always narrowly twisted anticlockwise; seeds winged or with fibrous testa or angular but never deeply pitted with fenestrate anticlinal walls nor rugulose; floral scales rectangular, equalling the free staminodes in size.

17* Fruits straight or twisted, if twisted always antidromous (alternatingly clockwise and anticlockwise); seeds deeply pitted with fenestrate anticlinal walls, very rarely with irregularly rugulose testa; floral scales with double arch and often with flags or floral scales reduced in size (<< than free staminodes).

18 Annual, winding herb; fruits completely inferior, narrowly cylindrical, +/- straight, more than 10x as long as wide; flower erect, petals dark yellow (Chile).

18* Perennial or annual herb; fruits partially superior to completely inferior, cylindrical, ovoidal, clavate or globose, never more than 7x as long as wide, often twisted; petals white, green, yellow or red ; flowers usually pendent or deflexed (if flowers erect:  plant a tiny rosette herb and petals cream coloured).

19 Fruits straight or twisted, opening with longitudinal slits, v. rarely tiny rosette herb with oblong, cream-coloured petals and fruits opening with apical valves.

                 Caiophora (ca. 50 spp)

19* Fruits straight, opening with apical valves.