Indian Reed
Canna indica

American Cowslip
Dodecatheon meadia

Round-Leaf Sundew
Drosera rotundifolia

Lamb of Tartary
Cibotium barometz

Sensitive Plant
Mimosa pudica

Peruvian Bark Tree
Cinchona officinalis

Golden Shower Tree
Cassia fistula

Night-Blowing Cereus
Selenicereus grandiflorus

Pheasant’s-Eye
Adonis annua

Indian Reed
Canna indica

American Cowslip
Dodecatheon meadia

Round-Leaf Sundew
Drosera rotundifolia

Lamb of Tartary
Cibotium barometz

Sensitive Plant
Mimosa pudica

Peruvian Bark Tree
Cinchona officinalis

Golden Shower Tree
Cassia fistula

Night-Blowing Cereus
Selenicereus grandiflorus

Pheasant’s-Eye
Adonis annua

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Indian Reed Canna indica

Indian Reed Canna indica

Indian Reed
Canna indica

Illustration of Canna Indica in Johannes Zorn Illustration of Canna Indica in Johannes Zorn

Johannes Zorn

Dreihundert auserlesene amerikanische Gewächse nach linneischer Ordnung (1785)

Johannes Zorn
Dreihundert auserlesene amerikanische Gewächse nach linneischer Ordnung

(1785)

“Much less known, however, is [Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin’s] magnificent work: Selectae stirpes americanae — drawn free hand in imperial folio. A work of which only a few examples exist because Herr Jacquin could paint them only at the request of great men, and the cost of which extended to four-hundred guilders of the imperial currency [about $6,000—$9,500].... One hopes thereby to bring pleasure to many enthusiasts, since not everyone can or wants to buy expensive original works.”

Canna indica by E. O. Donovan Canna indica by E. O. Donovan

E. O. Donovan

The Botanical Review, or the Beauties of Flora (1789)

E. O. Donovan
The Botanical Review, or the Beauties of Flora

(1789)

“The Indian flowering Cane grows naturally in the warmer parts of America, &c. From the appearance of the Seeds, which are round, hard, black and shining, it is called by the inhabitants of the British islands in the Indies, Indian shot. Though it has been long cultivated in this country, its delicate constitution is by no means inured to the severity of winter, or even a green-house situation.”

Canna indica by John Miller Canna indica by John Miller

John Miller

Illustratio systematis sexualis Linnaei (1804)

John Miller
Illustratio systematis sexualis Linnaei

(1804)

“It will mean little to the learned world to be informed of the motivation that occasioned the idea in this work. It is enough for the reader to know that its editor, since his youth, had a particular inclination toward botany. And because experience taught him that even the most precise description of plants that differ infinitely among themselves does not supply quite enough to learners and in no way gives them complete knowledge, the desire thus awoke in him, through the help of the engraver’s art, which he had engaged in for a long time, to see this science advanced further.”

Canna indica by Robert Thornton Canna indica by Robert Thornton

Robert John Thornton

Temple of Flora (1807)

Robert John Thornton
Temple of Flora

(1807)

“This beautiful plant is native of warm climates, and was early introduced into our gardens, even as far back as the time of Gerard, who mentions it as growing in his garden in 1596.... A triple row of seeds, the size of a large pea, black, shining, so hard as to be used as shot by the Indians, and by the Roman Catholics as beads, for making their Rosaries. It comes under Class I. of Linnæus. Monandria, one husband, and Order I. Monogynia, one wife.”

Canna indica by P. J. Redouté Canna indica by P. J. Redouté

P. J. Redouté

Les Liliacées (1808)

P. J. Redouté
Les Liliacées

(1808)

“The leaves of the Canna are used to make baskets for catching elemi resin. They are used as supports for drying cacao, and they replace those of Bananas in covering boxes. The root is considered a diuretic, but it is out of use. The seeds are often used for making rosary beads: it also has a beautiful purple color that has not yet been managed to be fixed. But the principal usage of Canna is ornamental because of its beautiful foliage and the elegance of its flowers.”

Canna indica herbarium specimen Canna indica herbarium specimen

E. Albert

NYBG Steere Herbarium Specimen (2003)

E. Albert
NYBG Steere Herbarium

(2003)

Herbarium Specimen

Common Name: iouiou.

Location: Federal States of Micronesia. Pohnpei. U Municipality. Kurum. Alt. 17 m. (56 ft.).

Collector: E. Albert, 03 Dec 2003.

Description: Herb, 3 m tall, red flower, green fruit. Phenology of specimen: Flower, Fruit.

Canna indica flower photograph Canna indica flower photograph

C. Gracie

NYBG Steere Herbarium Photograph (2006)

C. Gracie
NYBG Steere Herbarium

(2006)

Flower of Canna indica

Location: Netherlands Antilles. Saba. Along Sandy Cruz Trail from beginning of disturbed rain forest (at Upper Hell's Gate end) to junction of All Too Far Trail. Alt. 525—615 m. (1722—2018 ft.)

Collectors: S. A. Mori 26196 with C. A. Gracie, W. R. Buck, M. L. Smith, P. C. Hoetjes, J. F. Johnson & R. J. Thompson, 12 Aug 2006

Description: Herb. 1.5 m tall. Flowers red.

Habitat: Disturbed rain forest on steep, N-facing andesitic slope.

Canna indica fruit photograph Canna indica fruit photograph

C. Gracie

NYBG Steere Herbarium Photograph (2006)

C. Gracie
NYBG Steere Herbarium

(2006)

Immature Fruit of Canna indica

Location: Netherlands Antilles. Saba. Along Sandy Cruz Trail from beginning of disturbed rain forest (at Upper Hell’s Gate end) to junction of All Too Far Trail. Alt. 525—615 m. (1722—2018 ft.)

Collectors: S. A. Mori 26196 with C. A. Gracie, W. R. Buck, M. L. Smith, P. C. Hoetjes, J. F. Johnson & R. J. Thompson, 12 Aug 2006

Description: Herb. 1.5 m tall. Flowers red.

Habitat: Disturbed rain forest on steep, N-facing andesitic slope.

Previous Next
Erasmus Darwin’s The Botanic Garden  (1791)

BOTANIC MUSE! who, in this latter age
Led by your airy hand the Swedish sage,
Bade his keen eye your secret haunts explore
On dewy dell, high wood, and winding shore;
Say on each leaf how tiny graces dwell; 35
How laugh the Pleasures in a blossom’s bell;
How insect Loves arise on cobweb wings,
Aim their light shafts, and point their little stings.

“First the tall Canna lifts his curled brow
Erect to heaven, and plights his nuptial vow; 40
The virtuous pair, in milder regions born,
Dread the rude blast of Autumn’s icy morn;
Round the chill fair he folds his crimson vest,
And clasps the timorous beauty to his breast.

Canna. l. 39. Cane, or Indian Reed. One male and one female inhabit each flower. It is brought from between the tropics to our hot-houses, and bears a beautiful crimson flower; the seeds are used as shot by the Indians, and are strung for prayer-beads in some catholic countries.

(II.1:31–44)

Taxonomy

Linnæan Classification

Class: I. Monandria (One Male)
Order: I. Monogynia (One Female)
Genus: Canna
Species: Canna Indica

Modern Classification

Class: Equisetopsida C. Agardh
Subclass: Magnoliidae Novák ex Takht.
Super-
order:
Lilianae Takht.
Order: Zingiberales Griseb.
Family: Cannaceae Juss. (Canna Family)
Genus: Canna L.
Species: Canna indica L.
The Flower That Began It All

Of the many influential scientists and works of the eighteenth century, no one was more influential than Carl Linnæus (1707—1778) and perhaps no work more botanically influential than his Species plantarum (1753). Although the extent of influence is always difficult to measure and substantiate, it simply cannot be overstated in the case of Linnæus. One could, no doubt, point to the countless editions, translations, popularizations, and illustrations of his works; the societies formed because of him, and the physical gardens arranged according to his method, but one event crystallizes well enough the longevity of his thinking.

In 1867, the International Botanical Congress agreed on four laws for naming each and every plant. The third law states that if a plant has more than one recognized name, then the name that was published after May 1, 1753 shall be established as the official one. This date marks the publication of the first edition of the Species plantarum, effectively making it the beginning of modern taxonomy, since all of its 7,300 plant names immediately became the only valid ones—so much so that, complications and revisions notwithstanding, Linnæus’ names for plants are the same ones used by scientists today and will continue to be for the foreseeable future. Linnæus even continues to have a hand in the naming of plants discovered after the publication of the Species plantarum by means of his binomial nomenclature. This naming convention, which governs the identity of every organism in nature, produces the species name by combining the genus name with a single, specific epithet, as in Homo sapiens or our Canna indica. This botanical species is of concern here, because it is the very first plant listed in the Species plantarum. Therefore, if we are to enter Linnæus’ system and get some sense of how it works, C. indica will be the plant that greets us in the doorway.

We, along with botanists of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, would determine the identity of this species by following Linnæus’ sexual method. Because of the simplicity and comprehensiveness that allowed for the quick identification and classification of plants at home and in the field, this method became immensely popular in its day. The sexual method was so-called because it relied on the plant’s reproductive organs, its stamen(s) and pistil(s).

Hence, to identify the C. indica requires the following process. First, we must determine the larger category of the vegetable kingdom, the class of the plant, of which there were 24. The first 23 classes were phanerogamous, that is, they had “public marriages,” in Darwin’s translation, which meant that the plant’s reproductive organs were readily observable. In contrast, the 24th class, the cryptogams, which included ferns, mosses, algae, and fungi, had “clandestine marriages,”, since their reproductive organs were difficult or outright impossible to observe. The C. indica, however, has a readily observable stamen and pistil and thus belongs to one of the first 23 classes. But which one?

We ascertain this by counting the number of stamens: the C. indica has only one. It consequently belongs to the first class, Monandria or one male. (Counting stamens works for the first 13 classes, but things get a bit more complicated after that: it becomes necessary to observe not only number, but also proportion, union, and separation of the stamens.) Then, we must figure out the next largest category, the order, which is based on the female reproductive organs. C. indica has just one pistil, meaning that it falls into the first order, Monogynia or one female. From there, we only need to tend to the description of its genus and species to identify it precisely.

By belonging to the first class and order, C. indica is a monogamous plant. However, “The first class, Monandria, in the system of Linnæus is a very small one; comprising ... but two orders. There are also but eighteen genera in it, and forty-four species. Very few of these plants are natives of Europe; and the Indian sorts are not easy to be met with, at least in flower, in the best hot-houses.” This passage stems from Jacques-Jean Rousseau’s fantastic Letters on the Elements of Botany: Addressed to a Lady. Rousseau, who was just as well known in the eighteenth century for his botanical works as for his political ones, is drawing attention to the fact that monogamous plants are far and few between, more frequently met with in India than in Europe. These circumstances provide some context for Dr. Shaw’s jarring verse that is intended to be a celebration of a committed marriage. In this respect, Dr. Shaw describes the Indian practice of Sati, a widow's self-immolation after the death of her husband, as “A cheerful victim at that shrine/ Where nuptial truth can conquer pain.” Despite these references to India, C. indica actually originated from Central and South America (as seen on the distribution map), but the confusion perpetuated by Columbus persisted still at this time.

All of these factors demonstrate the rarity of monogamous plants, especially in Europe. This point is underscored when one realizes what it implies: every other class and order of phanerogamous plants must then be non-monogamous. Indeed, these plant marriages are variously configured in terms of bigamy, polygamy, gynandria, and so on.

The sexual politics inherent in these configurations were not lost on the eighteenth century. Although Linnæus erected this sexual system, and did not hesitate to draw analogies between plants and humans, he nevertheless cleaved to the system’s most conservative meaning, unwilling to extend these nuptial possibilities to the human world. In contrast, while Darwin certainly characterizes the monogamous C. indica as a “virtuous pair” in his verse, he did not shy away from exploiting the licentious possibilities of the sexual system as well. This is apparent in his treatment of Adonis annua, the last species to be mentioned in his poem, where monogamy has been supplanted by polygamy.

Key to the Sexual System (1783)
Key to the Sexual System

—from Erasmus Darwin et al., A System of Vegetables

Frances Arabella Rowden’s
A Poetical Introduction to the Study of Botany  (1801)

CLASS I.

CANNA

Indian flowering Reed.b

MONANDRIA, MONOGYNIA

From the tall Canna’s sable polish’d seeds
The pious nun prepares her holy beads;
While at her shrine she seeks almighty grace,
The savage Indian shoots the feather’d race:
Arm’d with those beads that mark her sacred pray’r,
He hurls destruction through the trackless air.
A gallant youth, in crimson vest array’d,
Supplies the Indian, and the cloister’d maid.

b A native of both Indies; the flower are produced in large spikes, and are of a bright scarlet: they are succeeded by a fruit or capsule, oblong, rough, and crowned with the three-cornered empalement of the flower which remains. When the fruit is ripe, the capsule opens lengthwise into three cells, filled with round, shining, black and hard seeds, which are used by the Indian as shot, and strung for prayer beads in some catholic countries.

p. 3

Distribution of Canna indica
Canna distribution

H. Maas-van de Kamer & P. J. M. Maas,
The Cannaceae of the World
(Blumea, vol. 53, no. 2, 2008, pp. 247—318: 274)

Analysis of the Sexual System of Carolus von Linnæus (1807)
Analysis of the Sexual System

—from Robert John Thornton’s Temple of Flora

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Linnæus in his Lapland Dress (1807)
Carl Linnæus

—from Robert John Thornton’s Temple of Flora

The Flower That Began It All

Of the many influential scientists and works of the eighteenth century, no one was more influential than Carl Linnæus (1707—1778) and perhaps no work more botanically influential than his Species plantarum (1753). Although the extent of influence is always difficult to measure and substantiate, it simply cannot be overstated in the case of Linnæus. One could, no doubt, point to the countless editions, translations, popularizations, and illustrations of his works; the societies formed because of him, and the physical gardens arranged according to his method, but one event crystallizes well enough the longevity of his thinking.

In 1867, the International Botanical Congress agreed on four laws for naming each and every plant. The third law states that if a plant has more than one recognized name, then the name that was published after May 1, 1753 shall be established as the official one. This date marks the publication of the first edition of the Species plantarum, effectively making it the beginning of modern taxonomy, since all of its 7,300 plant names immediately became the only valid ones—so much so that, complications and revisions notwithstanding, Linnæus’ names for plants are the same ones used by scientists today and will continue to be for the foreseeable future. Linnæus even continues to have a hand in the naming of plants discovered after the publication of the Species plantarum by means of his binomial nomenclature. This naming convention, which governs the identity of every organism in nature, produces the species name by combining the genus name with a single, specific epithet, as in Homo sapiens or our Canna indica. This botanical species is of concern here, because it is the very first plant listed in the Species plantarum. Therefore, if we are to enter Linnæus’ system and get some sense of how it works, C. indica will be the plant that greets us in the doorway.

We, along with botanists of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, would determine the identity of this species by following Linnæus’ sexual method. Because of the simplicity and comprehensiveness that allowed for the quick identification and classification of plants at home and in the field, this method became immensely popular in its day. The sexual method was so-called because it relied on the plant’s reproductive organs, its stamen(s) and pistil(s).

Hence, to identify the C. indica requires the following process. First, we must determine the larger category of the vegetable kingdom, the class of the plant, of which there were 24. The first 23 classes were phanerogamous, that is, they had “public marriages,” in Darwin’s translation, which meant that the plant’s reproductive organs were readily observable. In contrast, the 24th class, the cryptogams, which included ferns, mosses, algae, and fungi, had “clandestine marriages,”, since their reproductive organs were difficult or outright impossible to observe. The C. indica, however, has a readily observable stamen and pistil and thus belongs to one of the first 23 classes. But which one?

We ascertain this by counting the number of stamens: the C. indica has only one. It consequently belongs to the first class, Monandria or one male. (Counting stamens works for the first 13 classes, but things get a bit more complicated after that: it becomes necessary to observe not only number, but also proportion, union, and separation of the stamens.) Then, we must figure out the next largest category, the order, which is based on the female reproductive organs. C. indica has just one pistil, meaning that it falls into the first order, Monogynia or one female. From there, we only need to tend to the description of its genus and species to identify it precisely.

By belonging to the first class and order, C. indica is a monogamous plant. However, “The first class, Monandria, in the system of Linnæus is a very small one; comprising ... but two orders. There are also but eighteen genera in it, and forty-four species. Very few of these plants are natives of Europe; and the Indian sorts are not easy to be met with, at least in flower, in the best hot-houses.” This passage stems from Jacques-Jean Rousseau’s fantastic Letters on the Elements of Botany: Addressed to a Lady. Rousseau, who was just as well known in the eighteenth century for his botanical works as for his political ones, is drawing attention to the fact that monogamous plants are far and few between, more frequently met with in India than in Europe. These circumstances provide some context for Dr. Shaw’s jarring verse that is intended to be a celebration of a committed marriage. In this respect, Dr. Shaw describes the Indian practice of Sati, a widow's self-immolation after the death of her husband, as “A cheerful victim at that shrine/ Where nuptial truth can conquer pain.” Despite these references to India, C. indica actually originated from Central and South America (as seen on the distribution map), but the confusion perpetuated by Columbus persisted still at this time.

All of these factors demonstrate the rarity of monogamous plants, especially in Europe. This point is underscored when one realizes what it implies: every other class and order of phanerogamous plants must then be non-monogamous. Indeed, these plant marriages are variously configured in terms of bigamy, polygamy, gynandria, and so on.

The sexual politics inherent in these configurations were not lost on the eighteenth century. Although Linnæus erected this sexual system, and did not hesitate to draw analogies between plants and humans, he nevertheless cleaved to the system’s most conservative meaning, unwilling to extend these nuptial possibilities to the human world. In contrast, while Darwin certainly characterizes the monogamous C. indica as a “virtuous pair” in his verse, he did not shy away from exploiting the licentious possibilities of the sexual system as well. This is apparent in his treatment of Adonis annua, the last species to be mentioned in his poem, where monogamy has been supplanted by polygamy.

Linnæus in his Lapland Dress (1807)
Carl Linnæus

—from Robert John Thornton’s Temple of Flora

Taxonomy

Linnæan Classification

Class: I. Monandria (One Male)
Order: I. Monogynia (One Female)
Genus: Canna
Species: Canna Indica

Modern Classification

Class: Equisetopsida C. Agardh
Subclass: Magnoliidae Novák ex Takht.
Super-
order:
Lilianae Takht.
Order: Zingiberales Griseb.
Family: Cannaceae Juss. (Canna Family)
Genus: Canna L.
Species: Canna indica L.
Phillip Miller’s The Gardeners Dictionary  (1768, 8th ed.)
Flower Anatomy
Dr. Shaw,
from Robert John Thornton’s Temple of Flora  (1807)

Where sacred Ganges* proudly rolls
O’er Indian plains his winding way,
By rubied rocks and arching shades†,
Impervious to the glare of day,

Bright Canna veil’d in Tyrian robe,
Views her lov’d lord with duteous eye;
Together both united bloom,
And both together fade and die.—

Thus, where Benares’‡ lofty towers
Frown on her Ganges’ subject wave,
Some faithful widow’d bride repairs,
Resolv’d the raging fire to brave.

True to her plighted virgin vow
She seeks the altar’s radiant blaze
Her ardent prayers to Brahma§ pours,
And calm approaching death surveys.

With India’s gorgeous gems adorn’d,
And all her flowers, which loveliest blow:
“Begin,” she cries, “the solemn rites,
“And bid the fires around me glow.

“A cheerful victim at that shrine
“Where nuptial truth can conquer pain,
“Around my brow rich garlands twine,
“With roses strew the hallow’d plain....”

* Where sacred Ganges.] The Ganges has been celebrated in all ages not only on account of the clearness of its water, which does not become putrid, though kept for years, as also for its sanctity. This water is conveyed to great distances, being esteemed necessary in the performance of certain religious ceremonies. All parts of the Ganges are said to be holy, but some particular parts are accounted to be more so than others, to which places thousands resort at certain seasons of the year, in order to purify themselves.

† Arching shades.] Poetry and painting are called kindred arts; but the former oftentimes rises superior to the powers of the latter.... Thus we could not introduce in our background the Ficus Religiosa, or Indian Fig-tree, (called so from its producing a delicious fruit, of a bright scarlet color, shaped like a fig,) overshadowing one of the noblest rivers in India. This tree rises much higher than our tallest oaks, and then sends out from the top lateral branches, and from thence drop other branches, which, reaching the ground, take root, and become trees, so that the canopy above continually extends, and furnishes new supports; thus constituting a forest of a single tree, under the shade of which 10,000 persons have been known, upon religious occasions, to repose.

‡ Benares’ lofty towers.] Benares is one of the most ancient cities of Indostan; and besides temples dedicated to almost innumerable deities (the fancies of the mind), it once boasted a pagoda (or sacred temple) of an immense size, in the center of the city. This was situate [sic] close to the shore of the Ganges, into which stream, according to the account of Tavernier, a regular flight of steps descend, leading directly down from the gates of the pagoda. The body of this temple is constructed in the form of a vast cross, allusive to the four elements, with a very high cupola in the center of the building, but somewhat pyramidal towards the summit; and at the extremity of every one of the four parts of the cross there is a tower, to which there is an ascent on the outside, with balconies at stated distances, affording delightful views of the city, the river, and adjacent country....

§ To Brahma pours.] The subject is so extremely interesting, that of the great God himself, the author of our being, omniscient, omnipresent, and omnipotent, that the reader will forgive our entering widely here into the discussion of primitive religion, in order to prove that in all Nations the wise have worshiped one only supreme God, but the vulgar the pictures of his attributes....

pp. 80—87

Continue the Exhibition

Next Species:

American Cowslip (Dodecatheon meadia)

See it in the LuEsther Mertz Library
  • Phillip Miller, The Gardeners Dictionary (1731)
  • Carl Linnæus, Species plantarum (1753)
  • John Miller, Illustratio systematis sexualis Linnaei (1777)
  • Carl Linnæus, System of Vegetables (1783)
  • Johannes Zorn, Dreyhundert auserlesene amerikanische Gewächse nach linneischer Ordnung (1785)
  • Erasmus Darwin, The Botanic Garden (1791)
  • Robert John Thornton, Temple of Flora (1807)
  • Frances Arabella Rowden, A Poetical Introduction to the Study of Botany (1818)
  • P. J. Redouté, Les Liliacées (1816)